Toxic Ghost Acres, o la dinámica de la eliminación de desechos de producción de petróleo en la Amazonía ecuatoriana, de los años setenta a noventa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32991/2237-2717.2020v10i1.p23-51Keywords:
Historia Ambiental, Texaco, Externalización, Gestión de Residuos, Petróleo, Ecuador, Amazonía, Justicia AmbientalAbstract
La selva amazónica en Ecuador y sus habitantes han estado expuestos a una contaminación a gran escala desde el inicio de la industria petrolera de la región en la década de 1960. Este documento investiga las prácticas de gestión de residuos de Texaco Petroleum Company que dominó la exploración y extracción de petróleo hasta la década de 1990. La extracción de recursos industriales y la contaminación crónica resultante por las prácticas de eliminación de residuos indican la creación sistemática de patrones de externalización. Este documento propone estudiar las prácticas de externalización tales como toxic ghost acres (superficies fantasmas tóxicas), examinando las piscinas de desechos como su materialización más tangible en la Amazonía. Esta contribución a las prácticas de gestión de residuos de Texaco extrapola toxic ghost acres como un mecanismo de externalización transregional de los costos económicos y socioecológicos que funcionan exponiendo un lugar a un peligro transfiriéndolo allí o evitando la gestión adecuada de los riesgos producidos in situ. Texaco se vio involucrado en el establecimiento de un sistema de gestión de residuos basado en toxic ghost acres en toda la región.
References
Acosta, Alberto. “Amazonia. Violencias, Resistencias, Propuestas.” Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, no. 107 (2015): 39–62. https://doi.org/10.4000/rccs.6004.
Adam, Barbara. Timescapes of Modernity: The Environment and Invisible Hazards. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
American Petroleum Institute. Division of Production. Primer of Oil and Gas Production. 2nd ed. Dallas: American Petroleum Institute, 1962.
Andersen, Maj Munch. “Eco-Innovation–Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory.” In 25th Celebration DRUID Conference, 2008.
Baby, Patrice, Marco Rivadeneira, and Roberto Barragán. La Cuenca Oriente: Geología y Petróleo. Quito: Petroecuador, 2004.
Bahadori, Alireza. Waste Management in the Chemical and Petroleum Industries. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118731741.
Barrett, Mary L. “Earthen Pits in U.S. Petroleum Fields: A History of Nomenclature and Related Usage.” Oil-Industry History 11, no. 1 (2010): 43–59.
Borgstrom, Georg. The Hungry Planet: The Modern World at the Edge of Famine. New York: Macmillan, 1965.
Brand, Ulrich, and Markus Wissen. Imperiale Lebensweise: Zur Ausbeutung von Mensch Und Natur in Zeiten Des Globalen Kapitalismus. München: oekom verlag, 2017.
———. The Limits to Capitalist Nature: Theorizing and Overcoming the Imperial Mode of Living. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2018.
Buchanan, James M., and Wm. Craig Stubblebine. “Externality.” Economica 29, no. 116 (1962): 371. https://doi.org/10.2307/2551386.
Bucheli, Marcelo. “Major Trends in the Historiography of the Latin American Oil Industry.” The Business History Review 84, no. 2 (2010): 339–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20743908.
Burger, Joanna. Oil Spills. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997.
Cepek, Michael. “The Loss of Oil: Constituting Disaster in Amazonian Ecuador.” The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology 17, no. 3 (2012): 393–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1935-4940.2012.01250.x.
Cepek, Michael L., and Bear Guerra. Life in Oil: Cofán Survival in the Petroleum Fields of Amazonia. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018.
Clapp, Jennifer. Toxic Exports: The Transfer of Hazardous Wastes from Rich to Poor Countries. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001.
Davidov, Veronica. “Aguinda v. Texaco Inc.” Journal of Legal Anthropology 1, no. 2 (2010): 147–64. https://doi.org/10.3167/jla.2010.010201.
Dhooge, Lucien J. “Aguinda v. Chevrontexaco: Mandatory Grounds for the Non-Recognition of Foreign Judgments for Environmental Injury in the United States.” Journal of Transnational Law & Policy 19, no. 1 (2009): 1–235.
Doyle, William. “Amazonian Oil Exploration: A Report on the Historical Facts of Texaco’s Operations.” Focus on Geography 52, no. 2 (2010): 38–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8535.2009.tb00246.x.
Etchart, Nicolle Paulina. “Violencia y Sufrimiento Tóxico. La Lucha Por Justicia Ambiental En Dayuma, Amazonía Ecuatoriana.” Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Socialies - Sede Ecuador, 2011.
Fernández Arroyo, Diego P. “Parallel Proceedings: Texaco/Chevron Lawsuits (Re Ecuador).” In Global Private International Law, edited by Horatia Muir Watt, Lucia Bíziková, Agatha Brandão de Oliveira, and Diego P. Fernández Arroyo, 55–75. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788119238.00012.
Fingas, Merv. “An Overview of In-Situ Burning.” In Oil Spill Science and Technology, 737–903. Oxford: Elsevier, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-85617-943-0.10023-1.
Fontaine, Guillaume. El Precio Del Petróleo. Conflictos Socio-Ambientales y Gobernabilidad En La Región Amazónica. Quito: Editorial Abya Yala, 2007.
García, Ramiro Gordillo. ¿El Oro Del Diablo? Ecuador: Historia Del Petróleo. Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional, 2003.
Grosfoguel, Ramón, and Ana Margarita Cervantes-Rodríguez. “Unthinking Twentieth-Century Eurocentric Mythologies: Universalist Knowledges, Decolonization, and Developmentalism.” In The Modern/Colonial/Capitalist World-System in the Twentieth Century: Global Processes, Antisystemic Movements, and the Geopolitics of Knowledge, edited by Ramon Grosfoguel and Ana Margarita Cervantes-Rodriguez, XIII–XIV. London: Praeger, 2002.
Hettler, Jörg, Bernd Lehmann, and Luis LeMarie. Environmental Problems of Petroleum Production in the Amazon Lowland of Ecuador. Berlin: Selbstverlag Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, FU Berlin, 1996.
Islam, M. R., M. M. Khan, and A. B. Chhetri. Green Petroleum: How Oil and Gas Can Be Environemntally Sustainable. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
Johnson, Adrienne. “Ecuador’s National Interpretation of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO): Green-Grabbing through Green Certification?” Journal of Latin American Geography 13, no. 3 (2014): 183–204.
Joyner, Christopher C. “Latin America’s Communal Response to the Energy Crisis: The Latin American Energy Organization (Olade).” Lawyer of the Americas 6, no. 3 (1974): 637–61.
Kimerling, Judith. ¿Modelo o Mito? Tecnología de Punta y Normas Internacionales En Los Campos Petroleros de La Occidental. Quito: Abya Yala, 2006.
———. Amazon Crude. New York: Natural Resource Defense Council, 1991.
———. “Indigenous Peoples and the Oil Frontier in Amazonia: The Case of Ecuador, Chevrontexaco, and Aguinda v. Texaco.” International Law and Politics, no. 38 (2006): 413–664.
———. “Lessons from the Chevron Ecuador Litigation: The Proposed Intervenors’ Perspective.” Stanford Journal of Complex Litigation 1, no. 2 (2013): 241–94.
Latorre, Sara, Katharine N. Farrell, and Joan Martínez-Alier. “The Commodification of Nature and Socio-Environmental Resistance in Ecuador: An Inventory of Accumulation by Dispossession Cases, 1980–2013.” Ecological Economics 116 (2015): 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.04.016.
Lessenich, Stephan. Living Well at Others’ Expense: The Hidden Cost of Western Prosperity. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019.
Martin Beristain, Carlos, Dario Paez, and Itziar Fernandez. Las Palabras de La Selva: Estudio Psicosocial Del Impacto de Las Explotaciones Petroleras de Texaco En Las Comunidades Amazónicas de Ecuador. Bilbao: Instituto de Estudios sobre Desarrollo y Cooperación, 2009.
Martz, John D. Politics and Petroleum in Ecuador. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1987.
Meyer, Carrie A. “Environmental NGOs in Ecuador: An Economic Analysis of Institutional Change.” The Journal of Developing Areas 27, no. 2 (1993): 191–210.
Mohai, Paul, David Pellow, and J. Timmons Roberts. “Environmental Justice.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 34, no. 1 (2009): 405–30. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348.
Müller, Simone M. “Corporate Behaviour and Ecological Disaster: Dow Chemical and the Great Lakes Mercury Crisis, 1970–1972.” Business History 60, no. 3 (2018): 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1346611.
Nixon, Rob. Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.
Ortega Santos, Antonio, and Chiara Olivieri. “Narrativas Coloniales de La Historia Ambiental. Un Balance Hacia La Decolonialidad Como Nueva Epistemología.” Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana y Caribeña (HALAC) Revista de La Solcha 7, no. 2 (2018): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.32991/2237-2717.2017v7i2.p32-64.
Osaghae, Eghosa E. “The Ogoni Uprising: Oil Politics, Minority Agitation and the Future of the Nigerian State.” African Affairs 94, no. 376 (1995): 325–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098833.
Peterson, C. H. “Long-Term Ecosystem Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.” Science 302, no. 5653 (2003): 2082–86. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084282.
Pigrau, Antoni. “The Texaco-Chevron Case in Ecuador: Law and Justice in the Age of Globalization.” Revista Catalana de Dret Ambiental 5, no. 1 (2014): 1–43. https://doi.org/10.17345/rcda1437.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Poveda, J. “Perspectivas de Desarrollo de La Región Fronteriza Amazónica Ecuatoriana Colombiana.” Revista Geografica Del Instituto Geografico Militar 27 (1988).
Rankin, Jennifer K. “U.S. Laws in the Rainforest: Can a U.S Court Find Liability for Extraterritorial Pollution Caused by a U.S Corporation? An Analysis of Aguinda V. Texaco, Inc.” Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 18, no. 1 (1995): 221–63. https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol18/iss1/6.
Rival, Laura. Trekking through History: The Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
Rome, Adam. “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties.” Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (2003): 525–54. https://doi.org/10.2307/3659443.
Sabin, Paul. “Searching for Middle Ground: Native Communities and Oil Extraction in the Northern and Central Ecuadorian Amazon, 1967–1993.” Environmental History 3, no. 2 (1998): 144–68.
Santos, Antonio Ortega, and Chiara Olivieri. “Miradas Colonias vs Decoloniales a Los Conflictos y Resistencias Ambientales Para El Mundo Actual.” In Por Una Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana, edited by Adrián Gustavo Zarrili, 55–96. Buenos Aires: Editorial Teseo, 2016.
Sawyer, Suzana. Crude Chronicles: Indigenous Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in Ecuador. Durham: Duke University Press, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822385752.
Secretaría General de la OEA - Dpt. de Desarrollo. Diagnostica de La Provincia Del Napo, Tomo IV. Potencialidades y Limitantes. Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, 1988.
Sorensen, Niels Ole. “Lucha Por La Vida En La Amazonia.” Exposition Au Parlement Européen Strasbourg, 1990.
Stretesky, Paul, and Michael J. Hogan. “Environmental Justice: An Analysis of Superfund Sites in Florida.” Social Problems 45, no. 2 (1998): 268–87. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097247.
Suárez, Henry Llanes. Consideraciones Sobre Materia Laboral. Vol. 7. Quito: CETAPE, 1997.
Tucker, Richard. Insatiable Appetite: The United States and the Ecological Degradation of the Tropical World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
Watts, Michael. Petro-Violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction, and Political Ecology. Working Paper (Berkeley Workshop on Environmental Politics). Berkeley, Califórnia: Institute of International Studies, 1999.
Adam, Barbara. Timescapes of Modernity: The Environment and Invisible Hazards. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
American Petroleum Institute. Division of Production. Primer of Oil and Gas Production. 2nd ed. Dallas: American Petroleum Institute, 1962.
Andersen, Maj Munch. “Eco-Innovation–Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory.” In 25th Celebration DRUID Conference, 2008.
Baby, Patrice, Marco Rivadeneira, and Roberto Barragán. La Cuenca Oriente: Geología y Petróleo. Quito: Petroecuador, 2004.
Bahadori, Alireza. Waste Management in the Chemical and Petroleum Industries. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118731741.
Barrett, Mary L. “Earthen Pits in U.S. Petroleum Fields: A History of Nomenclature and Related Usage.” Oil-Industry History 11, no. 1 (2010): 43–59.
Borgstrom, Georg. The Hungry Planet: The Modern World at the Edge of Famine. New York: Macmillan, 1965.
Brand, Ulrich, and Markus Wissen. Imperiale Lebensweise: Zur Ausbeutung von Mensch Und Natur in Zeiten Des Globalen Kapitalismus. München: oekom verlag, 2017.
———. The Limits to Capitalist Nature: Theorizing and Overcoming the Imperial Mode of Living. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2018.
Buchanan, James M., and Wm. Craig Stubblebine. “Externality.” Economica 29, no. 116 (1962): 371. https://doi.org/10.2307/2551386.
Bucheli, Marcelo. “Major Trends in the Historiography of the Latin American Oil Industry.” The Business History Review 84, no. 2 (2010): 339–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20743908.
Burger, Joanna. Oil Spills. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997.
Cepek, Michael. “The Loss of Oil: Constituting Disaster in Amazonian Ecuador.” The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology 17, no. 3 (2012): 393–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1935-4940.2012.01250.x.
Cepek, Michael L., and Bear Guerra. Life in Oil: Cofán Survival in the Petroleum Fields of Amazonia. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018.
Clapp, Jennifer. Toxic Exports: The Transfer of Hazardous Wastes from Rich to Poor Countries. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001.
Davidov, Veronica. “Aguinda v. Texaco Inc.” Journal of Legal Anthropology 1, no. 2 (2010): 147–64. https://doi.org/10.3167/jla.2010.010201.
Dhooge, Lucien J. “Aguinda v. Chevrontexaco: Mandatory Grounds for the Non-Recognition of Foreign Judgments for Environmental Injury in the United States.” Journal of Transnational Law & Policy 19, no. 1 (2009): 1–235.
Doyle, William. “Amazonian Oil Exploration: A Report on the Historical Facts of Texaco’s Operations.” Focus on Geography 52, no. 2 (2010): 38–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8535.2009.tb00246.x.
Etchart, Nicolle Paulina. “Violencia y Sufrimiento Tóxico. La Lucha Por Justicia Ambiental En Dayuma, Amazonía Ecuatoriana.” Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Socialies - Sede Ecuador, 2011.
Fernández Arroyo, Diego P. “Parallel Proceedings: Texaco/Chevron Lawsuits (Re Ecuador).” In Global Private International Law, edited by Horatia Muir Watt, Lucia Bíziková, Agatha Brandão de Oliveira, and Diego P. Fernández Arroyo, 55–75. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788119238.00012.
Fingas, Merv. “An Overview of In-Situ Burning.” In Oil Spill Science and Technology, 737–903. Oxford: Elsevier, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-85617-943-0.10023-1.
Fontaine, Guillaume. El Precio Del Petróleo. Conflictos Socio-Ambientales y Gobernabilidad En La Región Amazónica. Quito: Editorial Abya Yala, 2007.
García, Ramiro Gordillo. ¿El Oro Del Diablo? Ecuador: Historia Del Petróleo. Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional, 2003.
Grosfoguel, Ramón, and Ana Margarita Cervantes-Rodríguez. “Unthinking Twentieth-Century Eurocentric Mythologies: Universalist Knowledges, Decolonization, and Developmentalism.” In The Modern/Colonial/Capitalist World-System in the Twentieth Century: Global Processes, Antisystemic Movements, and the Geopolitics of Knowledge, edited by Ramon Grosfoguel and Ana Margarita Cervantes-Rodriguez, XIII–XIV. London: Praeger, 2002.
Hettler, Jörg, Bernd Lehmann, and Luis LeMarie. Environmental Problems of Petroleum Production in the Amazon Lowland of Ecuador. Berlin: Selbstverlag Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, FU Berlin, 1996.
Islam, M. R., M. M. Khan, and A. B. Chhetri. Green Petroleum: How Oil and Gas Can Be Environemntally Sustainable. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
Johnson, Adrienne. “Ecuador’s National Interpretation of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO): Green-Grabbing through Green Certification?” Journal of Latin American Geography 13, no. 3 (2014): 183–204.
Joyner, Christopher C. “Latin America’s Communal Response to the Energy Crisis: The Latin American Energy Organization (Olade).” Lawyer of the Americas 6, no. 3 (1974): 637–61.
Kimerling, Judith. ¿Modelo o Mito? Tecnología de Punta y Normas Internacionales En Los Campos Petroleros de La Occidental. Quito: Abya Yala, 2006.
———. Amazon Crude. New York: Natural Resource Defense Council, 1991.
———. “Indigenous Peoples and the Oil Frontier in Amazonia: The Case of Ecuador, Chevrontexaco, and Aguinda v. Texaco.” International Law and Politics, no. 38 (2006): 413–664.
———. “Lessons from the Chevron Ecuador Litigation: The Proposed Intervenors’ Perspective.” Stanford Journal of Complex Litigation 1, no. 2 (2013): 241–94.
Latorre, Sara, Katharine N. Farrell, and Joan Martínez-Alier. “The Commodification of Nature and Socio-Environmental Resistance in Ecuador: An Inventory of Accumulation by Dispossession Cases, 1980–2013.” Ecological Economics 116 (2015): 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.04.016.
Lessenich, Stephan. Living Well at Others’ Expense: The Hidden Cost of Western Prosperity. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019.
Martin Beristain, Carlos, Dario Paez, and Itziar Fernandez. Las Palabras de La Selva: Estudio Psicosocial Del Impacto de Las Explotaciones Petroleras de Texaco En Las Comunidades Amazónicas de Ecuador. Bilbao: Instituto de Estudios sobre Desarrollo y Cooperación, 2009.
Martz, John D. Politics and Petroleum in Ecuador. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1987.
Meyer, Carrie A. “Environmental NGOs in Ecuador: An Economic Analysis of Institutional Change.” The Journal of Developing Areas 27, no. 2 (1993): 191–210.
Mohai, Paul, David Pellow, and J. Timmons Roberts. “Environmental Justice.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 34, no. 1 (2009): 405–30. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348.
Müller, Simone M. “Corporate Behaviour and Ecological Disaster: Dow Chemical and the Great Lakes Mercury Crisis, 1970–1972.” Business History 60, no. 3 (2018): 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1346611.
Nixon, Rob. Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.
Ortega Santos, Antonio, and Chiara Olivieri. “Narrativas Coloniales de La Historia Ambiental. Un Balance Hacia La Decolonialidad Como Nueva Epistemología.” Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana y Caribeña (HALAC) Revista de La Solcha 7, no. 2 (2018): 32–64. https://doi.org/10.32991/2237-2717.2017v7i2.p32-64.
Osaghae, Eghosa E. “The Ogoni Uprising: Oil Politics, Minority Agitation and the Future of the Nigerian State.” African Affairs 94, no. 376 (1995): 325–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098833.
Peterson, C. H. “Long-Term Ecosystem Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.” Science 302, no. 5653 (2003): 2082–86. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084282.
Pigrau, Antoni. “The Texaco-Chevron Case in Ecuador: Law and Justice in the Age of Globalization.” Revista Catalana de Dret Ambiental 5, no. 1 (2014): 1–43. https://doi.org/10.17345/rcda1437.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Poveda, J. “Perspectivas de Desarrollo de La Región Fronteriza Amazónica Ecuatoriana Colombiana.” Revista Geografica Del Instituto Geografico Militar 27 (1988).
Rankin, Jennifer K. “U.S. Laws in the Rainforest: Can a U.S Court Find Liability for Extraterritorial Pollution Caused by a U.S Corporation? An Analysis of Aguinda V. Texaco, Inc.” Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 18, no. 1 (1995): 221–63. https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol18/iss1/6.
Rival, Laura. Trekking through History: The Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
Rome, Adam. “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties.” Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (2003): 525–54. https://doi.org/10.2307/3659443.
Sabin, Paul. “Searching for Middle Ground: Native Communities and Oil Extraction in the Northern and Central Ecuadorian Amazon, 1967–1993.” Environmental History 3, no. 2 (1998): 144–68.
Santos, Antonio Ortega, and Chiara Olivieri. “Miradas Colonias vs Decoloniales a Los Conflictos y Resistencias Ambientales Para El Mundo Actual.” In Por Una Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana, edited by Adrián Gustavo Zarrili, 55–96. Buenos Aires: Editorial Teseo, 2016.
Sawyer, Suzana. Crude Chronicles: Indigenous Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in Ecuador. Durham: Duke University Press, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822385752.
Secretaría General de la OEA - Dpt. de Desarrollo. Diagnostica de La Provincia Del Napo, Tomo IV. Potencialidades y Limitantes. Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, 1988.
Sorensen, Niels Ole. “Lucha Por La Vida En La Amazonia.” Exposition Au Parlement Européen Strasbourg, 1990.
Stretesky, Paul, and Michael J. Hogan. “Environmental Justice: An Analysis of Superfund Sites in Florida.” Social Problems 45, no. 2 (1998): 268–87. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097247.
Suárez, Henry Llanes. Consideraciones Sobre Materia Laboral. Vol. 7. Quito: CETAPE, 1997.
Tucker, Richard. Insatiable Appetite: The United States and the Ecological Degradation of the Tropical World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
Watts, Michael. Petro-Violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction, and Political Ecology. Working Paper (Berkeley Workshop on Environmental Politics). Berkeley, Califórnia: Institute of International Studies, 1999.
Downloads
Published
2020-05-05
How to Cite
Feichtner, M. F. (2020). Toxic Ghost Acres, o la dinámica de la eliminación de desechos de producción de petróleo en la Amazonía ecuatoriana, de los años setenta a noventa. Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana Y Caribeña (HALAC) Revista De La Solcha, 10(1), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.32991/2237-2717.2020v10i1.p23-51
Issue
Section
Articles
License
This journal offers immediate free access to its content, following the principle that providing free scientific knowledge to the public provides greater global democratization of knowledge.
As of the publication in the magazine the authors have copyright and publication rights of their articles without restrictions.
The HALAC Magazine follows the legal precepts of the Creative Commons - Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International license. 
